معنویت، دین و بهداشت شواهد، موضوعات و علائق

نوع مقاله : تخصصی

نویسنده

چکیده

توجه به نقش عوامل دینى و معنوى در بهداشتْ سرگذشت دور و درازى دارد. فرهنگ ها از دوران باستان تا عصر جدید غالباً بهداشت و بیمارى را امورى مستقیماً مرتبط با باورها و اعمال و رفتارهاى دینى گوناگونى مى پنداشته اند, چنان که دستورات دینى در مورد پاره اى غذاها, فعالیت هاى جسمى و انواع و اقسام تأمّلات درونى4 و نیایش ها شواهدى بر این مدعایند (Rosen, 1993). در طیّ دهه گذشته, مدعیات و پرسش هایى در خصوص ارتباط هاى دینى, معنوى و بهداشتى رواج یافته است به این معنا که آثار مربوط به این زمینه پر فروش ترین آثار بوده اند. چندین کتاب معطوف به معنویّت در ده کتاب اوّل نیویورک تایمز جایگاهى به دست آورده اند (مثلاً, مواظبت از نفس5 اثر مور 6[1994] سه شنبه ها با مورى7 اثر البوم8 و چگونه باید خدا را شناخت9 اثر چاپرا10). مجلات خبرى عمده اى نظیر تایم و نیوزویک به مقالاتى ویژه درباره معنویّت و بهداشت برجستگى خاصى بخشیده اند و موضوعات خاص را در جراید علمى (از باب نمونه, روان شناس آمریکایى,11 سالنامه طبّ رفتارى,12 مجله روان شناسى بهداشت,13 آموزش و رفتار بهداشتى14) منتشر کرده اند یا منتشر خواهند کرد. چندین همایش علمى به سخنرانان مدعو یا مجموعه مقالاتى که به موضوعات مربوط به معنویّت, دین و بهداشت مى پردازند (مثلاً انجمن طبّ روان ـ تنى,15 انجمن روان شناسى بهداشت اروپا,16 انجمن طبّ رفتارى17) اهمیّت خاصى داده اند یا در حال برنامه ریزى براى آنها هستند. انجمن روان شناسى آمریکا18 اخیراً دست به انتشار کتاب هاى درسى اى در باب عنوان مورد نظر مانند کتاب هاى درسى اثر پى

عنوان مقاله [English]

معنویت، دین و بهداشت شواهد، موضوعات و علائق

نویسنده [English]

  • Karel EE Toursen
چکیده [English]

توجه به نقش عوامل دینى و معنوى در بهداشتْ سرگذشت دور و درازى دارد. فرهنگ ها از دوران باستان تا عصر جدید غالباً بهداشت و بیمارى را امورى مستقیماً مرتبط با باورها و اعمال و رفتارهاى دینى گوناگونى مى پنداشته اند, چنان که دستورات دینى در مورد پاره اى غذاها, فعالیت هاى جسمى و انواع و اقسام تأمّلات درونى4 و نیایش ها شواهدى بر این مدعایند (Rosen, 1993). در طیّ دهه گذشته, مدعیات و پرسش هایى در خصوص ارتباط هاى دینى, معنوى و بهداشتى رواج یافته است به این معنا که آثار مربوط به این زمینه پر فروش ترین آثار بوده اند. چندین کتاب معطوف به معنویّت در ده کتاب اوّل نیویورک تایمز جایگاهى به دست آورده اند (مثلاً, مواظبت از نفس5 اثر مور 6[1994] سه شنبه ها با مورى7 اثر البوم8 و چگونه باید خدا را شناخت9 اثر چاپرا10). مجلات خبرى عمده اى نظیر تایم و نیوزویک به مقالاتى ویژه درباره معنویّت و بهداشت برجستگى خاصى بخشیده اند و موضوعات خاص را در جراید علمى (از باب نمونه, روان شناس آمریکایى,11 سالنامه طبّ رفتارى,12 مجله روان شناسى بهداشت,13 آموزش و رفتار بهداشتى14) منتشر کرده اند یا منتشر خواهند کرد. چندین همایش علمى به سخنرانان مدعو یا مجموعه مقالاتى که به موضوعات مربوط به معنویّت, دین و بهداشت مى پردازند (مثلاً انجمن طبّ روان ـ تنى,15 انجمن روان شناسى بهداشت اروپا,16 انجمن طبّ رفتارى17) اهمیّت خاصى داده اند یا در حال برنامه ریزى براى آنها هستند. انجمن روان شناسى آمریکا18 اخیراً دست به انتشار کتاب هاى درسى اى در باب عنوان مورد نظر مانند کتاب هاى درسى اثر پى

Albom, M. (1997). Tuesdayصs with Morrie. New York: Doubleday.
Alexander, C. N., Langer, E. J., Newman, R. I., & Chandler, H. M. (1989). Transcendental meditation, mindfulness and logevity: An experimental study with the elderly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 950-964.
Allport, G. (1950). The individual and his religion. New York: Macmillan.
Bandura, A. (1997). Health promotion from the perspective of social cognitive theory. Psychology and Health, 19, 1-27.
Bargh, J. A., & Chartraud, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54, 1173-1182.
Baron, R. M., & Kenney, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social Psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
Bellah, R. N., Madsen, R., Sullivan, W., Swidler, A., & Tipton, S. (1985). Habits of the heart: Individualism and commitment in American life. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Bergin, A. E. (1983). Religiosity and mental health: A critical reevaluation and meta-analysis. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 14, 170-184.
Billings, J. S. (1981). Vital statistics of the Jews. North American Review, 153, 70-84.
Byrd, R. B. (1988). Positive therapeutic effects of intercessory prayer in a coronary care unit population. SouthernMedical Journal, 81, 826-829.
Chatters, L. M. (2000). Religion and health: Public health research and practice. Annual Review of Public Health, 21, 335-367.
Chopra, D. (2000). How to know God: The soulصs journey into the mystery of mysteries. New York: Random House.
Comstock, G. W., & Partridge, K. B. (1972). Church attendance and health. Journal of Chronic Diseases, 25, 665-672.
Comstock, G. W., & Tonascia, J. A. (1977). Education and mortality in Washington County, Maryland. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 18, 54-61.
Cook, T. D. (1985). Postpositivist critical multiplism. In R. L. Shotland & M. M. Marks (Eds.), Social science and social policy (pp. 21-62). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999). If we are so rich, why arenصt we happy? American Psychologist, 54, 821-827.
Dawkins, R. (1999). You cantصs have it both ways: Irreconcilable differences. Skeptical Inquirer, 23, 62-64.
Dossey, L. (in press). Prayer and medical science. Archives of Internal Medicine.
Durkheim, E. (1951). Suicide: A study in sociology (J. A. Spaulding & G. Simpson, Trans.). Glencoe, IL: Free Press. (Original work published 1897)
Einstein, A. (1993). Einstein on humanism. New York: Citadel Press.
Ellis, A. (1971). The case against religion: A psychotherapistصs view. N: Institute for Rational Living.
Ellison, C. G. (1991). Religious involvement and subjective well being. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32, 80-99.
Ellison, C. G., Burr, J. A., & McCall, P. L. (1997). Religious homogeneity and metropolitan suicide rates. Social Forces, 76, 273-299.
Ellison, C. G., & Gay, D. A. (1990). Religion, religious cimmitment, and life satisfaction among Black Americans. Sociological Quarterly, 31 (1), 123-147.
Ellison, C. G., & Levin, J. S. (1998). The religion-health connection: Evidence, theory and future directions. Health Education and Behavior, 25, 700-720.
Emmons, R. A., & Crumpler, C. A. (1999). Religion and spirituality? The roles of sanctification and the concept of God. Inernational Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 9, 17-24.
Enstrom, J. E. (1975). Cancer mortality among Mormons. Cancer, 36 (3), 825-841.
Exline, J. J., Yali, A. M., & Lobel, M. (1999). When God disappoints:Difficulty forgiving God and its role in negative emotion. Journal of Health Psychology, 4, 365-379.
Exline, J. J., Yali, A. M., & Sanderson, W. C. (in press). Guilt, discord, and alienation: The role of religious strain in depression and suicidality. Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Frank, R. H., & Cook, P. J. (1995). The winner-take-all society. New York: Free Press.
Frankel, B. G., & Hewitt, W. E. (1994). Religion and well being among Canadian university students: The role of faith groups on campus. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 33, 62-73.
Freud, S. (1961). The future of an illusion. In J. Strachey (Ed. and Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmond Freud (Vol.21, pp. 1-56). London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis. (Original work published 1927).
Galanter, M. (1986). زMooniesس get married: A psychiatric follow-up study of a charismatic religious sect. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 1245-1249.
Gallup, G. (1995). The Gallup Poll: Public opinion 1995. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources.
Gartner, J., Larson, D. B., & Allen, G. D. (1991). Religious commitment and mental health: A review of the empirical literature. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 19, 6-25.
Gorsuch, R. L., & Miller, W. R. (1999). Measuring spirituality. In W. R. Miller (Ed.), Integrating spirituality into practice: Resources for practitioners (pp. 47-64). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Harris, A. H. S., Thoresen, C. E., McCullough, M. E., & Larson, D. B. (1999). Spiritually and religiously oriented health interventions. Journal of Health Psychology, 4, 413-433.
Harris, R. C., Dew, M. A., Lee, A., Amaya, M., Buches, L. D. R., & Coleman, G. (1995). The role of religion in hearth-transplant recipientsص long-term health and well-being. Journal of Religion and Health, 34, 17-32.
Harris, W. S., Gowda, M., Kolb, J. W., Strychacz, C. P., Vacek, J. L., Jones, P. G., Forker, A., Oصkeefe, J. H., & McCallister, B. D. (1999). A randomized, controlled trail of the effects of remote, intercessory prayer on outcomes in patients admitted to the coronary care unit. Archives of Internal Medicine, 159, 2273-2278.
Hill, P. C., & Hood, R. W. (1999). Measures of religious behavior. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press.
Hilliard, R. B. (1993). Single case methodology in psychotherapy process and outcome research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 373-380.
Hummer, R. A., Rogers, R. G., Nam, C. B., & Ellison, C. G. (1999). Religious involement and U. S. adult mortality. Demography, 36, 272-285.
Idler, E. L. (1987). Religious involement and the health of the elderly: Some hypotheses and an initial test. Social Forces, 66, 226-238.
Idler, E. L., & Kasl, S. V. (1992). Religion, disability, depression, and the timing of death. American Journal of Sociology, 97, 1052-1079.
Idler, E. L., & Kasl, S. V. (1997). Religion among disabled and non-disabled persons: II. Attendance at religious services as a predictor of the course of disability. Journals of Gerontology Series B-Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 52B, S306-S316.
James, W. (1985). Varieties of religious experience. New York: Randon House. (Original work published 1902).
Kabat-Zinn, J., Wheeler, E., Light, T., Skillings, A., Scharf, M. J., Cropley, T. G., Hosmer, D., & Bernhard, J. D, (1998). Influence of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction intervention on rates of skin clearing in patients with moderate to severe psoriasis undergoing phototherapy (UVB) and photochemotherapy (PUVA). Psychosomatic Medicine, 60, 625-632.
Keefe, F. J., Affleck, G., Lefebvre, J., Underwood, L., Caldwell, D. S., Drew, J., Egert, J., Gibson, J., & Pargament, K. I. (in press). Living with rheumatoid arthritis: The role of daily spirituality and daily religious and spiritual coping. Journal of Pain.
Kiesler, D. J. (1966). Some myths of psychotherapy research and the earch for a pardigm. Psychological Bulletin, 65, 110-130.
Kirsch, I., & Lynn, S. J. (1999). Automaticity in clinical psychology. American Psychologist, 54, 504-515.
Koenig, H. G. (1997). Is religion good for your health?: Effects of religion on mental and physical health. Binghamton, New York: Haworth Pastoral Press.
Koenig, H. G., George, L. K., & Peterson, B. L. (1998). Religiosity and remission of depression in medically ill older patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 536-542.
Larson, D. B., Koenig, H. G., & kaplan, B. H. (1989). The impact of religion on menصs blood pressure. Journal of Religion and Health, 28, 265-278.
Larson, D. B., Swyers, J. P., & McCullough, M. E. (Eds.). (1998). Scientific research on spirituality and health: A consensus report. Rockville, MD: National Institute for Healthcare Research.
Larson, D. B., Sherrill, K. A., Lynos, J. S., Craigie, F. C., Thielman, S. B., Greenwood, M. A., & Larson, S. S. (1992). Associations between dimensions of religious commitment and mental health reported in the American Journal of Psychiatry and Archives of General Psychiatry: 1978-1989. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 557-559.
Levin, J. S., Markides, K. S., & Ray, L. A. (1996). Religious attendance an psycholigical well being in Mexican Americans: A panel analysis of three-generation data. Gerontologist, 36, 454-463.
Madalie, J. H., Kahn, H. A., & Neufeld, H. N. (1973). Five-year myocardial infarction incidence: II. Association of single variables to age and birthplace. Journal of Chromic Disease, 26, 329-349.
Masters, K. S., Bergin, A. E., Reynolds, E. M., & Sullivan, C. E. (1991). Religious life-styles and mental health: A follow-up study. Counseling and Values, 35, 211-224.
Matthews, D. A., Koeing, H. G., Thoresen, C. E., & Friedman, R. (1998). Physical health. In D. B. Larson, J. P. Swyers, & M. E. McCullough (Eds.), Scientific research on spirituality and health: A consensus report (pp. 31-54). Rockwille, MD: National Institute for Healthcare Research.
McCullough. M. E., Hoyt, W. T., Larson, D. B., Koenig, H. G., & Thoresen, C. E. (2000). Religious involvement and mortality: A meta-analytic review. Health Psychology, 19, 211-222.
McCullough, M. E., Larson, D. B., & Worthinton, E. L. (1998). Mental health. In D. B. Larson, J. P. Swyers, & M. E. McCullough (Eds.), Scientific research on spirituality and health: A consensus report (pp.55-67). Rockville, MD: National Institute for Healthcare Research.
McCullough, M. E., Pargament, K. I., & Thoresen, C. E. (Eds.). (2000). Forgiveness: Theory, research, and practice. NW: Guilford Press.
Miller, T. Q. (1997). Statistical methods describing temporal order in longitudinal research. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 50, 1155-1168.
Miller, W. R. (Ed.). (1999). Integrating spirituality into treatment: Resources for practitioners. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Miller, W. R., & Thoresen, C. E. (1999). Spirituality and health. In W. R. Miller (Ed.), Interrating spirituality into treatment (pp. 3018). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Moore, T. (1994). Care of the soul: A guid for cultivating depth and sacredness in everyday life. New York: Harper.
Musick, M. A., House, J. S., & Williams, D. R. (in press). Attendance at religious services and mortality in a national sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior.
Myers, D. (2000a). The American paradox: Spiritual hunger in a land of plenty. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Myers, D. (2000b). The funds, the friends, and the faith of happy people. American Psychologist, 55, 56-67.
Oman, D., & Reed, D. (1998). Religion and mortality among the community-dwelling elderly. A Journal of Public Health, 88, 1469-1475.
Oman, D., & Thoresen, C. E. (2001). Does religion cause health? Differing interpretations and diverse meaning. Manuscript submitted for publication
Oman, D., Thoresen, C. E., & McMahon, K. (1999). Volunteerism and mortality. Journal of Health Psychology, 4, 301-316.
Osler, W. (1910). The faith that heals. British Medical Journal, 18, 1470-1472.
Oxman, T. E., Freeman, D. H., & Manheimer, E. D. (1995). Lack of social participation or religious strength and comfort as risk factors for death after cardiac surgery in the elderly. Psychosomatic Medicine, 57,, 5-15.
Pargament, K. I. (1997). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research, practice. New York: Guilford Press.
Pargament, K. I. (1999). Psychology of religion and spirituality. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 9, 3-16.
Pargament, K. I., Smith, B. W., Koenig, H. G., & Perez, L. (1998). Patterns of positive and negative religious coping with major life stressors. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37, 710-724.
Pargament, K. I., Cole, B., VandeCreek, L., Balavich, T., Brant, C., & Perez, L. (1999). The Vigil: Religion and the search for control in the hospital waiting room. Journal of Health Psychology, 4, 327-341.
Phillips, R. L., Kuzma, J. W., Beeson, W. L., & Lotz, T. (1980). Influence of selection versus lifestyle on risk of fatal cancer and cardiovascular disease among Seventh-Day Adventists. A Journal of Epidemiology, 112, 296-314.
Phillips, R. L., Lemom, F. R., Beeson, W. L., & Kuzma, J. W. (1978). Coronary heart disease mortality among Seventh-Day Adventists with differing dietary habits: A preliminary report. A Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 31, S191-S198.
Post, S. G., Puchalski, C., & Larson, D. B. (2000). Physicians and patient spirituality: Professional houndaries, competency, and ethics. Annals of Internal Medicine, 132, 578-583.
Propst, L. R., Ostrom, R., Watkins, P., Dean, T., & Mashburn, D. (1992). Comparative efficacy of religious and non-religious cognitive-behavioral therapy for the treatment of clinical depression in religious individuals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 94-103.
Richards, P. S., & Bergin, A. E. (1997). A spiritual strategy for counseling and psychotherapy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Richards, P. S., Smith, S. A., & Davis, L. F. (1991). Healthy and unhealthy forms of religiousness manifested by psychotherapy clients: An empirical investigation. Journal of Research in Personality, 23, 506-524.
Richards, T. A., & Folkman, S. (1997). Spiritual aspects of loss at the time of a partnerصs death from AIDS. Death Studies, 21, 527-552.
Rogosa, D. (1987). Casual models do not support scientific conclusions: A comment in support of Freedman. Journal of Educational Statistics, 12, 185-195.
Rogosa, D. R. (1988). Myths about longitudinal research. In K. W. Schaie, R. T. Campbell, W. M. Meredith, & S. C. Rawlings (Eds.), Methodological issues in aging research (pp. 171-209). New York: Springer.
Rogosa, D. R., & Willett, J. B. (1985). Understanding correlates of change by modeling individual differences in growth. Psychometrika, 50, 203-228.
Rosen, G. (1993). A history of public health. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Schor, J. B. (1991). The overworked American. New York: Basic Books.
Scotch, N. A. (1963). Sociocultural factors in the epidemiology of Zulu hypertension. A Journal of Public Health, 53, 1205-1213.
Shafranske, E. P. (Ed.). (1996). Religion and the clinical practice of psychology. Washington, DC: A Psychological A.
Sherrill, K. A., & Larson, D. B. (1994). The anti-tenure factor in religious research in clinical epidemiology and aging. In J. S. Levin (Ed.), Religion in aging and health: Theoretical foundations and methodological frontiers (pp. 149-177). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Sicher, F., Targ, E., Moore, D., & Smith, H. (1998). A randomized double-blind study of the effect of distant healing in an advanced AIDS population. Western Journal of Medicine, 169, 356-363.
Simpson, J., & Weiner, E. (Eds.). (1989). Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Sloan, R. P., Bagiella, E., & Powell, T. (1999). Religion, spirituality, and medicine. Lancet, 353, 664-667.
Sloan, R. P., Bagiella, E., VandeCreek, L., Hover, M., & Casalone, C. (2000). Should physicians prescribe religious activities? New England Journal of Medicine, 342, 1913-1916.
Stifoss-Hanssen, H. (1999). Riligion and spirituality: What a European ear hears. International Journal for the Psychology of Riligion, 9, 25-33.
Strawbridge, W. J., Cohen, R. D., Shema, S. J., & Kaplan, G. A. (1997). Frequent attendance at religious services and mortality over 28 years. A Journal of Public Health, 87, 957-961.
Targ, E. (1997). Evaluating distant healing: A research review. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 3, 74-78.
Thomson, K. S. (1996). The revival of experiments on prayer. A Scientist, 84, 532-534.
Thoresen, C. E. (1998). Spirituality, health, and science: The coming revival? In S. Roth-Roemer, S. K. Robinson, & C. Carmin (Eds.), The emerging role of counseling psychology in health care (pp. 409-431). New York: Norton.
Thoresen, C. E. (1999). Spirituality, and health: Is there a relationship? Journal of Health Psychology, 4, 291-300.
Thoresen, C. E., & Harris, A. H. (in press). Spirituality, and health: Wahtصs the evidence and whatصs needed? Annals of Behavioral Medicine.
Tix, A. P., & Frazier, P. A. (1998). The use of religious scoping during stressful life events: Main effects, moderation, and mediation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 411-422.
Travers, B. (1937). Observations on the local disease termed malignant. Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, 17, 337.
Walsh, R., & Vaughn, F. (1995). Paths beyond ego: The transpersonal vision. New York: Plenum.
Worthington, E. L., Jr., Kurusu, T. A., McCullough, M. E., & Sandage, S. J. (1996). Empirical research on religion and psychotherapeutic processes and outcomes: A 10-year review and research prospectus. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 448-487.
Yates, J. W., Chalmer, B. J., St. James, P., Follansbee, M., & McKegney, F. P. (1981). Religion in patients with advanced cancer. Medical and Pediatric Oncology, 9, 121-128.