ORIGINAL_ARTICLE
بیمارى روانى: تاریخچه اولیه
بقراط (حدود سال 377ـ460 ق.م), شخصیت برجسته طب باستان, براى نخستین بار نابهنجارى هاى روانى را وارد مکتوبات پزشکى کرد. نوشته هاى او در باب آسیب شناسى روانى به همان اندازه که بدیع اند, جدلى و بحث انگیز نیز هستند. وى در مکتوباتش درباره (بیمارى مقدس) (صرع) از نادانى رایج آن عصر چنین انتقاد مى کند: (بنابراین, به نظر من این بیمارى به هیچ وجه الهى نیست و از بیمارى هاى دیگر نیز مقدس تر نیست, بلکه همانند سایر امراض علتى طبیعى دارد که از آن نشأت مى گیرد )(Zilboorg, 1941, pp. 43-44)بقراط اساساً به دلیل مشاهدات بالینى زیرکانه, رویکرد زیست پزشکى عقلانى و عرضه صریح و صبورانه دیدگاه هایش مشهور است. او معتقد بود که بیمارى از عدم تعادل مزاج سرچشمه مى گیرد. با اصطلاح مزاج اولین بار در نوشته هاى امپیدوکلس (433ـ 493 ق.م) برخورد کرده ایم که عناصر اساسى ارائه شده از سوى تالِس (آب), آناکسیمنس (هوا), هراکلیت (آتش), و گزنوفانس (خاک) را درهم آمیخته بود. نوشته هاى امپیدوکلس شالوده نظریه مزاج بقراط و نظریه پردازى شیمى ارسطو قرار گرفتند.زیلبورگ1 (1941) نقل مى کند که یک بار از بقراط خواستند که به دیدن فیلسوف بزرگ دموکریتوس, که دوستانش تصور مى کردند که به بیمارى روانى دچار شده, برود. از قرار معلوم بقراط با نظر عوامانه موافقت کرده و گیاه خربق را تجویز مى کند. بقراط پادشاهِ مقدونیه را از آن بیمارى اى که دیگران, سل (بیمارى پیشرونده و رو به وخامت) تشخیص داده بودند, ولى خود وى منشأ آن را روانى مى دانست, نجات بخشید. لیونز2 و پتروسلى3 (1978) سهم بقراط را در فهم بیمارى روانى چنین خلاصه کرده اند: نوشته هاى وى درباره حالت عاطفى بیمار و به طور کلى درباره بیمارى روانى, براساس برداشت امروزى بسیار زیرکانه و دقیق است. تعیین مغز به عنوان عضو تفکر و احساس, شاخصه مهم مرتبه بالاى فهم اوست) (p. 214).
https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_20865_4c8ba988636b701aff3a2a38403ea1ca.pdf
2004-03-20
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آر.ایْ.
پرنتکى ترجمه سید
1
AUTHOR
Becker. G. (1978). The mad genius controversy. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
1
Clarke, E., & OصMalley, C. D. (1968). The human brain and spinal cord. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
2
Foster, M. (1901). Lectures on the history of physiology during the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Cambridge, UK: University Press.
3
Gibson, C. (1889). The characteristics of genius: A popular essay. London: Scott.
4
Gordon, B.L. (1949). Medicine throughout antiquity. Philadelphia, PA: Davis.
5
Goshen, C.E. (1967). Documentary history of psychiatry. NewYork: Philosophical Library.
6
Lyons, A.S., & Petrucelli, R. J. (1978). Medicine: An illustrated history. NewYork: Abrams.
7
Sigerist, H. E. (Ed.). (1941). Four treatises of Theophrastus von Hohenheim called Paracelsus. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
8
Talbott, J. H. (1970). A biographical history of medicine. NewYork: Grune & Stratton.
9
Veith, I. (1965). Hysteria. The history of a disease. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
10
Zilboorg, G. (1941). Ambulatory schizophrenia. Psychiatry, 4, 149-155.
11
ORIGINAL_ARTICLE
بیمارى روانى: نگـرش ها
کورچین1 در روان شناسى بالینى مدرن2 اظهار داشته است که نگرش هاى مربوط به بیمارى روانى, ارتباط مستقیم ترى با مشاهده نابهنجارى هاى شدید داشته اند. در قرون اولیه, تصور مى شد که مبتلایان به بیمارى روانى مسخر شیاطین هستند و در نتیجه, آنان را زندانى و شکنجه مى کردند. در دوران امپراتورى روم, پزشکان, طرفدار دیدگاه علمى ترى همراه با درمان انسانى شدند, اما پس از سقوط این امپراتورى, اعتقاد به تسخیر, دوباره جان گرفت و تا عصر روشنگرى ادامه یافت. در این دوره, ویر3 یگانه شخصیت قابل اعتنایى بود که با برخورد وحشیانه با دیوانگان مقابله کرد و آنان را بیمار قلمداد نمود. تغییرى در این وضع تا انقلاب فرانسه و انقلاب امریکا به وجود نیامد.در 1801, پینل4 قید و بندها را از دست و پاى بیماران روانى خود برداشت و آنان را بیمار تلقى کرد. او در رساله اى در باب دیوانگى5 (1962/1801) با تنبیه مخالفت نمود و از درمان آنان به وسیله مواجهه مستقیم, مطالعه علمى, و استفاده از ثبت احوال و تاریخ زندگى بیماران طرفدارى کرد. او حتى معتقد بود که ممکن است برخى از بیمارى ها منشأ روانزاد داشته باشند. متأسفانه, آراى عموم مردم و متخصصان بسیار عقب افتاده تر از این بود. در واقع, گرچه بیمارستان هاى امریکا و انگلیس در قرن نوزدهم بر درمان اخلاقى تأکید مى ورزیدند, برخوردهاى نامناسبى که به دست افرادى نظیر دیکس6 و بیرز7 اعمال و برملا شد نشان داد که جامعه هم چنان آمادگى سوءرفتار با بیماران روانى را دارد. پیش از آغاز نیمه اول قرن بیستم, غالباً بیماران روانى هنوز افرادى صرفاً دیوانه تلقى مى شدند. دیوانگان هم چنان ذهن و قوه تخیل مردم را به خود جذب مى کردند و مشاهده افراد به اصطلاح دیوانه در حال نمایش در سیرک ها و نمایش هاى عجیب و غریب, امرى متعارف بود.
https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_20866_fe0afb44e35eff3186dcbbd58b193fca.pdf
2004-03-20
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دابلیو
کارل ترجمه سید مهدى
1
AUTHOR
Bowden. C. L., Schoenfeld, L.S., & Adams, L. (1980). Mental health attitudes and treatment expectations as treatment variables. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36, 653-657.
1
Brockman, J., & Darcy, C. (1978). Correlates of attitudinal social distance toward the mentally ill: A review and re-survey. Social Psychiatry, 13, 69-77.
2
Crocetti, G. M., Spiro, H. R., Lemkau, P.V., & Siassi, I. (1972). Multiple models and mental illnesses: A rejoinder to failure of a moral enterprise: Attitudes of the public toward mental illness, by T. R. Sarbin & J. C. Mancuso. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 39 (1), 1-5.
3
Fieve, R. R. (1977). The revolution defined: It is pharmacologic. Psychiatric Annals, 7(10), 10-18.
4
Janus, S.S., Bess, B. E., Cadden, J. J., & Greenwald, H. (1980). Training police officers to distinguish mental illness. American Journal of Psychiatry. 137(2), 228-229.
5
Korchin, S. J. (1976). Modern Clinical Psychology. NewYork: Basic Books.
6
Morrison, J.K., & Teta, D.C. (1980). Reducing studentsص fear of mental illness by means of seminar-induced belief change. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36(1), 275-276.
7
Nuehring, E.M. (1979). Stigma and state hospital patients. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 49(4), 626-633.
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Pinel, P. (1962). Treatise on insanity. NewYork: Hafner. (Original work published 1801).
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Rabkin, J. (1974). Public attitudes toward mental illness: A review of the literature. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 10, 9-33.
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Sattin, D. (1980). Possible sources of error in the evaluation of psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36(1), 99-105.
11
Szasz, T. S. (1970). The ,anufacture of madness, NewYork: Harper & Row.
12
Szasz, T. S. (1970). The myth of mental illness: Foundations of a theory of personal conduct. NewYork: Harper & Row. (Original work published 1961).
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ORIGINAL_ARTICLE
الگوهاى متغیر در سلامت
بیل, پدر هفتادساله مرى, بیمار درمان ناپذیرى بود که از سرطان, دیابت و بیمارى قلبى رنج مى برد. او در اثر یک سکته در بستر افتاده بود و نمى توانست حرف بزند. روشن بود که درد زیادى داشت و ناامید بود. به مرى و مادرش گفته بودند بعید است او تا یک هفته دیگر زنده بماند. سه روز بعد, معلوم شد قانقاریا در پاى راست او پیشرفت کرده است. (در قانقاریا گوشت بدن فاسد مى شود و همان طور که پیش مى رود گازهاى کشنده اى آزاد مى کند.) پزشک هاى معالج او گفتند تنها راه هاى چاره این است که یا پاى او را قطع کنیم یا بگذاریم که بمیرد. مرى از آن ها پرسید که آیا پدرش مى تواند با این وضع از یک عمل جراحى بزرگ جان سالم به در برد یا نه. آن ها به او گفتند که او بخت بسیار کمى براى جان سالم به در بردن دارد. سپس پرسید که آیا عمل جراحى درد آشکار او را آرامش مى بخشد. آن ها گفتند چه بسا دردى که از قطع پا خواهد کشید بسیار شدید باشد. پزشکان صحبت هایشان را با توصیه به عمل جراحى به پایان بردند. مرى و مادرش حیرت زده بودند. بیل در آخرین هفته عمرش بود و امیدى به بهبودى او وجود نداشت, عمل جراحى نه درد او را تسکین مى بخشید نه عمر او را طولانى تر مى کرد, و بعید بود از آن جان سالم به در ببرد. نهایتاً هم عمل جراحى هزارها دلار هزینه داشت. مرى پرسید چرا آن ها در چنین شرایطى قطع پاى او را توصیه مى کنند. پس از یک سکوت دردناک, در نهایت یکى از آن ها پاسخ داد: (زیرا ما آموخته ایم که این گونه بیندیشیم. ما بخش هاى شکسته را یا تعمیر مى کنیم و یا از میان برمى داریم.)
https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_20867_0e0ae3b14b278a50979b08eb821119bd.pdf
2004-03-20
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سیِ ایچ. ال.
شریدان و اس. اى. رادمَـکر
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Ader, R. (1980). Psychosomatic and psychoimmunologic research. Psychosomatic Medicine, 42, 307-321.
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Antonovsky, A. (1979). Health, stress, and coping, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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Benson, H. (1984). Beyond the relaxation response. New York: Times Books.
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Borysenko, I. (1984). Psychoneuroimmunology Behavioral factors and the immune response, Revision, 7, 56-65.
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Engel, G. L. (1977). The need for a new medical model: A challenge for biomedicine. Science, 196, 129-135.
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Engel, G. L. (1980). The Clinical application of the biopsychosocial model. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 535-544.
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Fanshel, S. (1972). A meaningful measure of health for epidemiology. International Journal of health for epidemiology. International Journal of Epidemiology, 1, 319-337.
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Glantz, S. A., & Parmley, W. W. (in press), Passive smoking and heart disease: Epidemiology, physiology, and biochemistry, Circulation.
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Gordon, J. S., & Fadiman, J. (1984). Toward an integral medicine. In J. S. Gordon, D. T. Jaffe, & D. E. Bresler (eds.), Mind, body and health (pp. 3-18). New York: Human Sciences.
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Lippmann, W. (1965). Public opinion. Toronto, Ontario: First Free Press Paperback Edition. (Original work published in 1922.)
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McClelland, D. C. (1985). The social mandate of health psychology. American Behavioral Science, 28, 451-467.
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Pert, C. B. (1986). The wisdom of the receptors: neuropeptides, the emotions, and bodymind, Advances, 3 (3), 8-16.
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Siegel, B. S. (1986). Love, medicine, and miracles. New York: Harper & Row.
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Siegel, B. S. (1989). Peace, love, and healing. New York: Harper & Row.
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Stone, G. C. (1979). Health and the health system: A historical overview and conceptual framework. In G. C. Stone, F. Cohen, & N. E. Adler (eds.), Health psychology _ A handbook (pp. 1-17). San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.
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Stone, G. C. (1987). The scope of health psychology. In G. C. Stone, S. M. Weiss, J. D. Matarazzo, N. E. Miller, J. Rodin, C. D. Belar, M. J. Follick, & J. E. Singer (eds.), Health psychology: A discipline and a profession. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Syme, S. L. (1984). Sociocultural factors and disease etiology. In W. D. Gentry (ed.), Handbook of behavioral medicine (pp. 13-37). New York: Guilford Press.
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Weil, A. (1983). Health and healing: Understanding conventional and alternative medicine. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
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ORIGINAL_ARTICLE
رویکرد روان شناختى به مسئله پریشانى و سلامت روانى
این مقاله در صدد است طرحى کلى از نظام هاى روان شناختى رایج و مؤثر در سلامت روانى را چه در حوزه نظریه و چه در حوزه عمل ترسیم کند. این بحث بر پنج نظام متمرکز است: زیست شناختى و پزشکى, رفتارى, روان پویایى, انسان گرایانه و سیستمى. این نظام ها تا حدى همپوشى دارند, لیکن تبیین هاى کاملاً متمایزى در مورد علل مشکلات مربوط به سلامت روان ارائه مى دهند و هر یک به نوبه خود مستلزم روش هاى متفاوتى براى درمان هستند.
https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_20868_d14b1d7c9ebf2db5eed9e322d94bed7b.pdf
2004-03-20
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رودى
دالوس ترجمه محمدرضا
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Bateson, G. (1972) Steps to an Ecology of Mind, New York, Basic Books.
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Beck, A. T. (1967) Depression: clinical, experimental and theoretical aspects, New York, Harper & Row.
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Bion, W. R. (1961) Experiences in Groups, London, Tavistock.
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Boszromenyi-Nagy, I. and Sparks, G. (1973) Invisible Loyalties, New York, Harper & Row.
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Boyle, M. (1990) Schizophrenia: A Scientific Delusion?, London, Routledge.
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Brown, G. W., Monck, E. M., Carstairs, G. M. and Wing, J. K. (1962) 'The influence of family life on the course of schizophrenic illness', British Journal of Preventative Social Medicine, vol.16, 55-68.
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Cullen, C., Hattersley, J. and Tennant, L. (1981) 'Establishing behaviour: the constructional approach', in Davey, G. (ed.), Applications of Conditioning Theory, London, Methuen.
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Dallos, R. (1991) Family Belief Sydtems, Therapy and Change, Milton Keynes, Open University Press.
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Freud, S. (1962) Two Short Accounts of Psychoanalysis, Harmondsworth, Pelican.
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Haley, J. (1976) Problem Solving Therapy, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
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Heather, N. and Robertson, I. (1985) Problem Drinking: The New Approach, Harmondswoth, Pelican Books.
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Jackson, D. (1957) 'The question of family homeostasis', Psychology Quarterly Supplement, vol.31, 79-90.
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Jackson, D. (ed.) (1968) Theraphy, Communication and Change, Palo Alto, CA, Science and Behavior Books Inc.
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Kaplan, H.A. (1974) The New Sex Therapy, New York, Brunner Mazel.
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Kelly, G. (1955) The Psychology of Personal Constructs, New York and London, Norton.
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Kendell, R. E. (1993) 'The Nature of Psychiatric Disorders', in Kendell, R. E. and Zealley, A. (eds), Companion to Psychiatric Studies, 5th edn, Edinburgh, Churchill Livingstone.
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Leff, J. and Vaughn, C. (1981) 'The role of maintenance therapy and relatives' expressed emotion in relapse of schizophrenia: a two-year follow-up', British Journal of Psychiatry, vol.139, 102-10.
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McKenna, P.J. (1987) 'Pathology, phenomenology and the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia', British Journal of Psychiatry, vol.151, 288-301.
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Minuchin, S., Rosman, B. and Baxter, L. (1978) Psychosomatic Families: Anorexia Neroosa in Context, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
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Perls, F. S. (1969) Gestalt Therapy Verbatim, Moab, Real People Press.
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Rogers, C. (1965) Client Centred Therapy, New York, Houghton Mifflin.
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Rutter, M. (1975) Helping Troubled Children, Harmondsworth, Penguin.
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Scharff, D. E. (1982) The Sexual Relationship: an object relations view of sex and the family, Boston, Routledge & Kegan Paul.
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Seligman, M. (1975) Helplessness, San Francisco, Freeman.
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Sheldon, B. (1982) Behaviour Modification, London, Tavistock.
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Vondarcek, F. W. and Corneal, S. (1994) Strategies for Resolving Individual and Family Problems, Pacific Grove, Brook Cole.
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Wolpe, J. (1958) Psychotherapy and Reciprocal Inhibition, Stanford, CA, Stanford University Press.
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ORIGINAL_ARTICLE
روانشناسى سلامت
روانشناسى سلامت به فهم رفتار انسان از حیث سلامت و بیمارى مربوط است. پرکاربردترین تعریف این حوزه توسط مترازو ارائه شده است. براساس این تعریف, روان شناسى سلامت (مجموعه برنامه هاى خاص آموزشى, علمى و حرفه اى رشته روان شناسى است براى ارتقا و حفظ سلامت, پیشگیرى و درمان بیمارى و شناسایى عوامل مرتبط با علت شناسى و تشخیص سلامت, بیمارى و اختلالات از این دست). بنابراین, روان شناسان سلامت, عوامل روان شناختى اى را مطالعه مى کنند که در این که چگونه افراد, سالم مى مانند, این که چرا مریض مى شوند و این که چگونه به درمان و بیمارى واکنش نشان مى دهند, مؤثرند. این نوشته مى خواهد با نظرى اجمالى و کلى به هر یک از این حوزه ها, گستره و تنوع کار را نشان دهد.همانند دیگر حوزه هاى متعدّد روان شناسى, تحقیق در روان شناسى سلامت نیز به سه شیوه است: توصیفى, تبیینى, و مداخله محور. گرچه بخش زیادى از تحقیقات فعلى توصیفى است, اما تلاش هاى فزاینده اى در جهت ایجاد رویکردهاى تبیینى صورت گرفته است. براى مثال, مطالعات بیشترى, به جاى توصیف رفتارهاى مرتبط با سلامتى (مثل انتخاب رژیم غذایى, التزام به دارو درمانى) و چه بسا ارتباط دادن آن به یک پیامد (مثلاً وضعیت سلامتى) از الگوهایى استفاده مى کنند تا رفتارهاى مرتبط با سلامت را تبیین یا نتایج آن ها را پیش بینى کنند. ارائه الگو در هر رشته اى بسیار مهم است, زیرا باعث تقویت طرح و تفسیر تحقیق مى شود. به همین دلیل بخش خاصى را به انتخاب الگوهاى رفتارى مرتبط با سلامت ـ که بسیار به کار رفته اند ـ اختصاص مى دهیم.
https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_20869_9c90ac38268d96fcc51f6076ddac27ea.pdf
2004-03-20
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جان
وینمن ترجمه حمزه
1
AUTHOR
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ORIGINAL_ARTICLE
بستر اجتماعى سلامت
سلامت ما تنها نتیجه چگونه زندگى کردن ما نیست. [بلکه] از نوع شغلى که در اختیار داریم, درآمد ما و جهان اجتماعى اى که در آن مقیم هستیم نیز متأثّر است. در واقع, شواهد فزاینده اى وجود دارد که تفاوت هاى بهداشتیِ ظاهراً متأثّر از عوامل بیولوژیکى, بویژه تفاوت هاى مربوط به جنس, از عوامل اجتماعى نیز تأثیرپذیرند. این تفاوت ها, کم اهمیت و پیش پا افتاده نیستند. مردان به طور متوسط, پنج سال کمتر از زنان عمر مى کنند. افرادى که از رفاه بیشترى برخوردارند به طور متوسط, پنج سال بیشتر از فقرا عمر مى کنند (Haberman & Bloomfield, 1988). این عوامل مى توانند خطر ناشى از هرگونه رفتار مربوط به بهداشت فردى, از جمله استعمال دخانیات, را تحت الشعاع قرار دهند (Hein, Suadicani & Gyntelberg, 1992). اگر هدف ما بهبود بخشیدن به وضع سلامت عمومى است, تغییر محیط و بسترى که مردم در آن به سر مى برند چه بسا به اندازه تغییر و تحول در برنامه هایى که به رفتارهاى مخاطره آمیز فردى معطوف اند, عامل نیرومندى از کار در آید.
https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_20870_b26c7a6f764fd5224ca0846d159fcf3f.pdf
2004-03-20
130
165
پال
بِنِت ترجمه احمدرضا
1
AUTHOR
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ORIGINAL_ARTICLE
معنویت، دین و بهداشت شواهد، موضوعات و علائق
توجه به نقش عوامل دینى و معنوى در بهداشتْ سرگذشت دور و درازى دارد. فرهنگ ها از دوران باستان تا عصر جدید غالباً بهداشت و بیمارى را امورى مستقیماً مرتبط با باورها و اعمال و رفتارهاى دینى گوناگونى مى پنداشته اند, چنان که دستورات دینى در مورد پاره اى غذاها, فعالیت هاى جسمى و انواع و اقسام تأمّلات درونى4 و نیایش ها شواهدى بر این مدعایند (Rosen, 1993). در طیّ دهه گذشته, مدعیات و پرسش هایى در خصوص ارتباط هاى دینى, معنوى و بهداشتى رواج یافته است به این معنا که آثار مربوط به این زمینه پر فروش ترین آثار بوده اند. چندین کتاب معطوف به معنویّت در ده کتاب اوّل نیویورک تایمز جایگاهى به دست آورده اند (مثلاً, مواظبت از نفس5 اثر مور 6[1994] سه شنبه ها با مورى7 اثر البوم8 و چگونه باید خدا را شناخت9 اثر چاپرا10). مجلات خبرى عمده اى نظیر تایم و نیوزویک به مقالاتى ویژه درباره معنویّت و بهداشت برجستگى خاصى بخشیده اند و موضوعات خاص را در جراید علمى (از باب نمونه, روان شناس آمریکایى,11 سالنامه طبّ رفتارى,12 مجله روان شناسى بهداشت,13 آموزش و رفتار بهداشتى14) منتشر کرده اند یا منتشر خواهند کرد. چندین همایش علمى به سخنرانان مدعو یا مجموعه مقالاتى که به موضوعات مربوط به معنویّت, دین و بهداشت مى پردازند (مثلاً انجمن طبّ روان ـ تنى,15 انجمن روان شناسى بهداشت اروپا,16 انجمن طبّ رفتارى17) اهمیّت خاصى داده اند یا در حال برنامه ریزى براى آنها هستند. انجمن روان شناسى آمریکا18 اخیراً دست به انتشار کتاب هاى درسى اى در باب عنوان مورد نظر مانند کتاب هاى درسى اثر پى
https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_20871_72666a6586cf4d0b930bbb9efcac7fb8.pdf
2004-03-20
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کارل اى.
تورِسِن، الکس ایچ.
1
AUTHOR
Albom, M. (1997). Tuesdayصs with Morrie. New York: Doubleday.
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ORIGINAL_ARTICLE
التزام دینى و مرگ و میر
بررسى علمى رابطه میان دین و مرگ و میر به زمانى بسیار دورتر از آنچه بسیارى گمان مى کنند برمى گردد. حقیقت این است که دانشمندان از حدود 130 سال پیش, به بررسى تأثیر دین بر مرگ و میر و طول عمر علاقه مند بوده اند. در سال 1872, فرانسیس گالتون (1911ـ1822), که پیش از آن به سبب تحقیقات ابتکارى اش در زمینه نبوغ علمى شهرت یافته بود, نتایج پژوهشى را ارائه کرد که در صدد بررسى علمى تأثیر عینى دعا بر مرگ و میر انسان ها برآمده بود.گالتون کار خود را با این فرض آغاز نمود که گروه هاى خاصى از افراد ـ یعنى کشیش ها و مبلغان مذهبى ـ بیش از دیگران به نیایش مى پردازند. او استدلال نمود که اگر نیایش مؤثر مى بود, آنگاه افرادى مثل کشیشان و مبلغان مذهبى که بیشتر سدعا مى کنندز, به احتمال قریب به یقین بایستى عمر طولانى ترى نسبت به دیگران داشته باشند. با این پیش فرض بود که وقتى گالتون (1872) دریافت طول عمر کشیشان تفاوت قابل ملاحظه اى با وکلا یا پزشکان ندارد, مطمئن شد که شواهدى قطعى بر بى تأثیر بودن دعا اقامه کرده است.
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مایکل
مکالخ ترجمه محمدرضا
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ORIGINAL_ARTICLE
کینهتوزى، گذشت، دین و سلامتى
طى بیست سال گذشته, محققان, رابطه بین ایمان مذهبى و سلامت جسمى و روانى را مورد بررسى قرار داده اند (Koening, 1999; Koenig, McCullough, & Larson, 2000; Larson, Swyers, & McCullough, 1998; Levin, 1994; Thoresen, 1999; همچنین بنگرید از همین جلد به McCullough, Chapter3; Plante & Sharma, ; and Thoresen, Harris, & Oman, Chapter2). داده هاى بسیار حاصل از این پژوهش ها, رابطه مثبتى را نشان مى دهد. هرچند که عده اى (به طور نمونه: همچنین از همین جلد: Sloan, Bagiella, Powell, 1999; Chapter14) بر رعایت جانب احتیاط در بیان این مطلب اصرار دارند.
https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_20873_d7bc91cbaef055608c9f3f9994e7e7c6.pdf
2004-03-20
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292
اِوِرِت ال.
وُرثینگتون، پسر جک
1
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ORIGINAL_ARTICLE
سنجش دیندارى و معنویت در پژوهشهاى مربوط به سلامت
دین یکى از عمیق ترین جنبه هاى به شدّت شخصى زندگى انسان است که برخى از مهم ترین مسائل اسرارآمیز و وصف ناپذیرترین تجربه هاى بشر را دربر مى گیرد. پس عجیب نیست اگر سنجش دین دارى یا معنویت کارى دشوار است. عنوان یکى از جدیدترین سرمقاله هاى مجله غده شناسى روانى3 مربوط به این موضوع, بجا چنین انتخاب شده است: (آیا مى توان پرتو خورشید را با خط کش اندازه گیرى کرد؟) (Lederberg & Fitchett, 1999). متخصصان امر سلامت باید بدون این که پرتو خورشید را از نظر دور بدارند, همچنان در روش شناختى صحیح تکیه گاه محکمى داشته باشند; و این کار آسانى نیست. با این حال, محققان حوزه دین, در چند دهه گذشته ابزارهاى زیادى براى سنجش جنبه هاى مختلف دین دارى و معنویت بوجود آورده اند. متأسفانه, بسیارى از متخصّصان سلامت از این راه حل هاى ابتکارى مطّلع نیستند; و نتیجه این وضعیت, پرداختن به مقدارى کارهاى زائد است (Hill & Hood, 1999). بررسى هاى متعددى که اخیراً ارائه شده است, مى تواند به آشنایى بیشتر پژوهشگران حوزه سلامت با این ابزارها و مرحله کنونى پیشرفت آن ها کمک نماید (به عنوان مثال, مؤسسه فتزر/مؤسسه ملّى سالمندى,1999; Gorsuch & Miller, 1999; Hill & Hood, 1999). با این حال ,علائق و محدودیت هاى پژوهشگران سلامت همواره با علائق و محدودیّت هاى محقّقان دین که در حوزه هاى دیگرى فعالیت مى کنند, یکسان نیست. ما در این نوشته, به بررسى چند شاخص کمّى که بویژه براى استفاده در زمینه هاى مربوط به سلامت مناسب است مى پردازیم. چیربَن [در (ارزیابى علائق دینى و معنوى در روان درمانى) که در همین شماره نقدونظر آمده است] سنجش کیفى در روان درمانى را مورد بحث قرار مى دهد.
https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_20874_4960def09810c64f3552a21aa392c8f5.pdf
2004-03-20
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اَلن سى.
شرمن و استفانى سیمونتون
1
AUTHOR
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ارزیابى علائق دینى و معنوى در روان درمانى
امروزه بسیارى از متخصصان بالینى به ارزش دین و معنویت در زندگى بیمارانشان و همچنین اهمیت این عوامل در سلامت عاطفى و جسمانى اذعان مى کنند. اما پژوهش پیرامون این مبحث در آغاز راه است و ارزیابى نیز همچنان با پیچیدگى هایى در محیط بالینى روبه رو است. مقاله حاضر اهمیت ارزیابى و پرداختن به دین و معنویت در درمان را تبیین نموده و مسائل اساسى این کار را بررسى مى کند. همچنین ابعاد خاصى را که با پژوهش در روان درمانى مرتبط هستند, مشخص مى کند. مقاله, به پیروى از طرح سیاهه شرح حال دینى و معنوى1 که بیانگر مؤلفه هاى اصلى براى ارزیابى دین و معنویت در زندگى بیمار است, به چالش هایى در ارتباط با نقش متخصص بالینى مى پردازد.
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چیربان ترجمه مبین
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دخالت معنویّت در بهبودى و تمامیت
رابطه بین ایمان و سلامتى, پایه تجربى رو به رشدى دارد. همبستگى هاى مثبت, بین عوامل دینى و سلامتى جسمانى یافت شده است (Caine & Kaufman, 1999; George, Larson, Koenig, & McCullough, 2000; King, 2000; Koeing, 1999; Larson & Larson, 1994; Larson, Swyers, & McCullough, 1998; Levin & Vanderpool, 1991,). اگرچه بررسى جنبه هاى خاصِ دیندارى, یافته هاى مثبتِ نسبتاً سازگارى به دست داده (Bergin, 1991; Payne, Bergin, Bielema, & Jenkins, 1991), امّا ماهیّت دقیقِ ارتباط بین عوامل دینى و پیامدهاى سلامتى, مبهم است (Hill & Butter, 1995). به هر حال, این مطلب روشن است که بالا بودن میزان پایه دیندارى در جمعیت, نشان مى دهد بخش عمده بیمارانى که براى مراقبت بهداشت طبى یا روانى حاضر مى شوند, باورها و اعمال دینى مهمّى خواهند داشت (Rowan, 1996). با توجه به اینکه حدود نود و پنج درصد مردم ایالات متحده ابراز ایمان به خدا مى نمایند (Miller, 1999), تأمین کنندگان مراقبتِ سلامتى باید نسبت به دغدغه هاى دینى و معنوى حسّاس باشند. به باور ما آن ها همچنین باید به شیوه هایى آگاه باشند که خود آن ها یا دیگران مى توانند به لحاظ معنوى مداخله کرده و براى ایجاد بهبودى و تمامیّت کمک کنند.
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ORIGINAL_ARTICLE
قصه سرگردانى نقدى بر مقاله (در بىمعنایى معنا هست)
استیس در مقاله خود داستان سرگردانى انسان هایى را مطرح مى کند که از خدا و معنویت جدا شده اند, در واقع, داستان انسان هایى که به خدا و امور معنوى باور ندارند. میوه تلخ این فاصله گیرى براى بسیارى از انسان ها بى معنایى است.مقاله استیس در دو بخش تنظیم شده است: در بخش اوّل سرگردانى و در بخش دوم راه حل ها, بررسى آن ها و در نهایت, راه حلّ خودش را ارائه مى دهد. همان طور که از عنوان مقاله پیداست, استیس مدعى مى شود که زندگى کسانى که به خدا و معنویت اعتقاد ندارند, بى معناست, و در این بى معنایى نیز معنایى نهفته است. این عبارت به دو معنا مى تواند باشد: یکى آن که زندگى بدون خدا واقعا بى معناست, اما در عین حال, مى توان در جست وجوى معنایى در این زندگیِ بى معنا بود و به آرامش رسید. دیگر آن که زندگى اى که در ظاهر بى معناست, واقعا بى معنا نیست. به هر حال, استیس در بخش پایانى مقاله راه حلّ خود را براى فایق آمدن بر سرگردانى ارائه مى دهد و در آن جا معلوم مى شود که کدام یک از این دو احتمال مورد نظر استیس است؟تلاش نگارنده این خواهد بود که در چهار بخش مقاله را به پایان ببرد. در بخش نخست, اجمالا بخش اوّل مقاله استیس که در صدد بیان بى معنایى زندگى نوین است, گزارش خواهد شد; در بخش دوم, بخش اوّل مقاله او مورد بررسى قرار خواهد گرفت; در بخش سوم, گزارشى اجمالى از بخش دوم مقاله استیس, یعنى راه حل هاى پیشنهادى وى براى فایق آمدن بر پوچى و بى معنایى, ارائه مى شود و در بخش پایانى به بررسى این راه حل ها و ارائه راه حلّ مورد نظر پرداخته خواهد شد.
https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_20877_77e239328166b342f4355e3835dc398f.pdf
2004-03-20
450
473
عسکرى
سلیمانى
1
AUTHOR
1. والتر. تى. استیس, (در بى معنایى معنا هست), ترجمه اعظم پویا, نقدونظر, سال هشتم, شماره اوّل و دوم, بهار و تابستان 82, ص109.
1
2. همان.
2
3. همان, ص110ـ111.
3
4. همان, ص111.
4
5. همان, ص111ـ112.
5
6. همان, ص113.
6
7. همان.
7
8. همان, ص113ـ114.
8
9. همان, ص115.
9
10. همان, ص116.
10
11. همان, ص111.
11
12. جاثیه(45) آیه24.
12
13. همان, ص111ـ112.
13
14. همان, ص117.
14
15. همان, ص118ـ119.
15
16. همان, ص118ـ119.
16
17. همان, ص119.
17
18. همان.
18
19. همان, ص121ـ122.
19
20. والتر ترنس استیس, دین و نگرش نوین, ترجمه احمدرضا جلیلى, تهران, حکمت, 1377, ص397ـ404.
20
21. همان, ص420ـ 435.
21
22. نقدونظر, ص120.
22
23. دین و نگرش نوین, ص354.
23
24. نقدونظر, ص122.
24
25. قیامه(75) آیه5.
25
26. نقدونظر, ص122.
26
27. قیامه(75) آیه5.
27
28. انفال(8) آیه22.
28
29. اعراف(7) آیه179.
29
30. محمد بن یعقوب کلینى, الکافى, تعلیق على اکبر الغفارى, ج1, مکتبة الصدوق, تهران, 1381, ص74ـ 75. برگرفته از مقاله (برهان شرط بندى), حسن یوسفیان, نقدونظر, سال هشتم, شماره اوّل و دوم, 1382, ص360.
30
31. نقدونظر, ص123.
31
32. همان.
32
33. همان.
33
34. همان, ص119.
34
ORIGINAL_ARTICLE
ژرفنگران در حدیث امام سجاد(ع)
سئل عن على بن الحسین علیه السلام عن التوحید فقال: ان الله عزّ و جلّ علم انه یکون فى آخر الزمان اقوام متعمِّقون فأنزل الله عزّ وجلّ (قل هو الله احد الله الصمد) و الآیات من سورة الحدید الى قوله (و هو علیم بذات الصدور) فمن رام وراء هنالک هلک.1از على بن الحسین (امام سجاد)(ع) درباره توحید پرسیدند, پس فرمود: خداى عزّ و جلّ مى دانست که در آخرالزمان گروه هایى متعمِّق خواهند بود, پس خداى عزّ و جلّ (قل هو الله احد الله الصمد) و آن آیات از سوره حدید تا قول خداوند (وهو علیم بذات الصدور) را فرو فرستاد. پس هرکس فراتر از آن را قصد کند, هلاک مى شود.پژوهش این مقاله در مورد تعبیر (متعمقون) در این روایت است که آیا بار معنایى مثبت دارد یا منفى؟ به عبارت دیگر, آیا این روایت در صدد مدح متعمِّقون است یا ذم آنان؟ شاید در نگاه نخست, با توجه به معناى تحت اللفظى روایت و صرف نظر از اطلاعات بیرونى, به ذهن خواننده چنین خطور کند که اصلاً روایت در صدد ذم متعمّقون نیست, اگر نگوییم که در صدد مدح است, اما جناب حجة الاسلام والمسلمین رضا برنجکار در مقاله (حدیث (اقوام متعمقون) مدح یا مذمت) اصرار دارند بر این که این روایت در صدد ذم متعمقون است.2 از این رو, در مقام داورى بر آنند که رأى علامه مجلسى را در تفسیر این روایت که (متعمقون) را حمل بر ذم کرده است, بر صواب بدانند نه رأى صدرالمتألهین و فیض کاشانى را, که روایت را حمل بر مدح کرده اند. ایشان, که از این پس با تعبیر (مستدِل) یاد خواهند شد, براى اثبات مدعاى خود شواهدى از لغت, خانواده حدیث, یعنى بررسى روایاتى که در آن از واژه تعمق استفاده شده است, و قراین داخلى حدیث استفاده کرده است.به نظر مى رسد در هیچ یک از سه جهت, مدّعاى او پذیرفتنى نیست, از این رو, نشان داده خواهد شد که استدلال هاى او مفید مدّعاى وى نیستند.
https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_20878_03a2ff1298a45b56410e04dbe5558f81.pdf
2004-03-20
474
502
عسکرى
سلیمانى
1
AUTHOR
1. کتاب التوحید, ص283.
1
2. این مقاله ناظر به مقاله اى است که اخیراً رضا برنجکار تحت عنوان (حدیث اقوام متعمقون, مدح یا ذم) در نقدونظر, سال هشتم, شماره سوم و چهارم, پاییز و زمستان 1382, مطرح کرده است.
2
3. برنجکار, همان, ص445.
3
4. الخلیل الفراهیدى, کتاب العین, ج1, ص187.
4
5. محمد بن الحسن الاسترآباذی النحوی, شرح شافیة ابن الحاجب مع شرح شواهده عبدالقادر البغدادی, بیروت, دارالکتب العلمیه, ص104ـ107.
5
6. میر سید شریف, صرف میر, جامع المقدمات, تصحیح و تعلیق مدرس افغانى, ج1, ص149.
6
7. برنجکار, همان, ص445.
7
8. همان.
8
9. فیروزآبادى, القاموس المحیط, ص386.
9
10.بحارالانوار, ج107, ص86.
10
11. همان, ج64, ص365; ج74, ص234; مستدرک الوسائل, ج11, ص181.
11
12. زبیدى, تاج العروس.
12
13. تحف العقول, ص166.
13
14. مسند احمد بن حنبل, ج2, ص219.
14
15. همان, ج3, ص159.
15
16. همان, ص33.
16
17. کافرون(109) آیه6.
17
18. نهج البلاغه, ص16.
18
19. توحید صدوق, ص49.
19
20. نقدونظر, ص449.
20
21. انبیاء(21) آیه105.
21
22. ملک(67) آیه30.
22
23. نقدونظر, ص450.
23
24. التعلیقات, ص70.
24
25. همان, ص185.
25
26. طباطبایى, على و الفلسفه الالهیه, ص56 ـ 58.
26
27. در این جا در صدد بازگو کردن مدعاى عرفا و حکمت متعالیه هستم نه در صدد اثبات آن. حتى در این جا مدعى نیستم که این مدّعیات حق اند, بلکه در صدد بیان این مطلب هستم که این مدّعا با آن چه در روایات آمده است قابل فهم تر جلوه مى کند نسبت به کسانى که به ظاهر روایات بسنده مى کنند و به خود زحمت تدبّر در روایات را نمى دهند.
27
28. صدوق, کتاب التوحید, ص90ـ91.
28
29. همان, ص83 ـ84.
29
30. مجادله(58) آیه7.
30
31. نهج البلاغه.
31
32. التوحید, ص90.
32
33. همان, ص93.
33
34. مجمع البحرین, ج1, ص432.
34
35. مصباح المنیر, ص115.
35
36. نقدونظر, ص455.
36
37. الاسراء(17) آیه85.
37
ORIGINAL_ARTICLE
فرونگران در حدیث امام سجاد(ع)
در شماره پیشین مجله وزین نقدونظر به بررسى حدیث (اقوام متعمّقون) پرداختیم و براساس خانواده حدیث مذکور, یعنى احادیثى که واژه (تعمّق) و مشتقات آن را به کار برده اند, و نیز قرائن داخلى حدیث, اثبات کردیم که تعمّق در احادیث مفهومى منفى دارد و به معناى از حدّ گذشتن است. آن گاه ضمن تفسیر سوره توحید و بخشى از سوره حدید براساس احادیث معصومان(ع) , نشان دادیم که آراى افلاطون, ارسطو و فلوطین در باب خداشناسى مصادیقى برجسته از تعمّق است.این نوشته مورد توجه و عنایت اهل فکر و اندیشه, از جمله دوست و همکار ما, حجة الاسلام والمسلمین عسکرى سلیمانى, قرار گرفت و ایشان در مقاله اى به نقد نوشته نگارنده پرداخت. در این جا بر خود فرض مى دانم از همه کسانى که نوشته حقیر را خوانده و به تأیید یا نقد و بررسى آن پرداخته اند, از جمله برادر ناقدم, تشکر و قدردانى کنم.
https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_20879_310a65477cde2cc9eeea849c2f7c4b66.pdf
2004-03-20
503
521
رضا
برنجکار
1
AUTHOR
1. لسان العرب, ج 1, ص 400.
1
2. تاج العروس, ماده نطع.
2
3. معجم مقاییس اللغة, ج 5, ص 371 ـ 372.
3
4. الصحاح, ج 4, ص 1562و 1447.
4
5. لسان العرب, ج 14, ص 334 و ج 1, ص 240.
5
6. همان, ج 9, ص 400.
6
7. نهج البلاغه, ترجمه دکتر شهیدى, ص 537.
7
8. شمس العلوم, ج 7, ص 4775.
8
9. الصحاح, ج 4, ص 1424; معجم مقاییس اللغة, ج 5, ص 136.
9
10. اصول کافى, ج2, ص228, و نیز ر.ک: بحارالانوار, ج74, ص234.
10
11. فتح البارى, ج 4, ص 176.
11
12. فیض الغدیر, ج 3, ص 173.
12
13. شرح مسلم, ج 7, ص 214.
13
14. گفتنى است که علامه مجلسى تعمّق را به معناى مثبت به کار نبرده است, بلکه فقط اجازه روایى آقا حسین خوانسارى به امیر ذى الفقار را نقل کرده که در این اجازه تعمّق به معناى مثبت به کار رفته است.
14
15. بحارالأنوار, ج 110, (در معجم فقهى, ج 107) ص 86.
15
16. بحارالانوار, ج 68, ص 384.
16
17. همان, ج 72, ص 90.
17
18. المیزان, ج 19, ص 53.
18
19. شورى(42), آیه 11.
19
20. توحید, صدوق, ص 69.
20
21. همان, ص 40.
21
22. همان, ص 96.
22
23. معجم مقاییس اللغة, ج 3, ص 309.
23
ORIGINAL_ARTICLE
نزاع بر سر حرفِ آخر، بررسى و نقد کتاب حرفِ آخر، اثر تامس نیگل
تامس نیگل در حرف آخر1 استدلال مى کند که مدّعیات عقل داراى نوعى غائیت یا جایگاه مطلق است. مسیر اصلى استدلال وى از شهرت نسبتاً زیادى برخوردار است: تلاش هایى که براى تضعیف عقل صورت مى گیرد, خودشکن است. هم چنین مضمون و برآیند سخن وى دربردارنده مغالطه ضد شخص2 است; زیرا برآیند سخنان وى آن است که بسیارى از کسانى که شیفته نوعى شک گرایى, نسبى گرایى, کل گرایى, پساتجدّدگرایى یا ضد عقل گرایى مى شوند, افرادى به دردنخور, سبک مغز و آشفته ذهن هستند. او به حق رواج شک گرایى را در (حوزه هاى ضعیف تر فرهنگ) به عنوان امرى خام و عامیانه محکوم مى کند و از رشد کاهلیِ فکریِ افراطى در فرهنگ معاصر و فروپاشى استدلال جدّى در پایین ترین بخش هاى علوم انسانى و علوم اجتماعى, سخت خشمگین است. اما گستره وسیع نکوهش و هشدار نویسنده نگریستن از ناکجا (The View From Nowhere) که متوجه همه کسانى است که به دنبال ایجاد نوعى محدودیت بر مدّعیات مطلق عقل و علم هستند, عجیب مى نماید, چرا که نیگل در کتاب نگریستن از ناکجا بر این اندیشه که هیچ یک از مواضع عین گرایانه و ذهن گرایانه3 نمى توانند هیچ گونه شأن و جایگاه مطلق داشته باشند, بلکه باید این دو موضع یکدیگر را تکمیل کنند, مى تازد.به هر حال, من یقیناً نمى خواهم به دفاع از نوعى سبک مغزى متهم شوم! مرگ بر نسبى گراییِ عامیانه! اما باید تأکید کنم که حمله نیگل بر ذهن گرایى بسیار ضعیف مى نماید, تقریباً نظیر آن که گفته شود, هرکس که از همان نوع سلاحى استفاده کند که ما در اختیار داریم, باید عضو ارتش ما باشد. آن چه نیگل به آن شأن مطلق مى دهد, صرفاً هرگونه تفکّر نظام مند نیست, بلکه استدلال براساس منطق نوین و متداول است که به قصد رسیدن به حقیقت عینى مطلق و بدون هرگونه قیود نسبى گرایانه یا ذهن گرایانه انجام مى شود. [برخلاف تصور نیگل] این واقعیت که منتقدان منطق ما, در حمله به این منطق عناصرى از خود آن را به کار مى گیرند, مستلزم هیچ گونه پارادوکس خود ارجاعى (self-referential paradoxs) نیست. هنگامى که قاتل براى کشتن قربانى خود از اسلحه وى استفاده مى کند, هرگز نیازى به خودکشى ندارد.هرچند تأمّلات مطرح شده در این جا, که با مطالعه کتاب نیگل به ذهنم رسیده, عمدتاً انتقادآمیز هستند, باید اعتراف کنم که خود را کاملاً مدیون آثار او مى دانم, آن هم نه فقط این کتاب, (که از نظر من, حتى اگر بهترین کتاب نیگل نباشد, کتاب واقعاً جالبى است) بلکه بسیارى از نوشته هاى وى که نیگل در آن ها شجاعت و شهامت مواجهه با نتایج ناخوش آیند را به نمایش مى گذارد. در واقع, او نوعى نگرش (هرچه باداباد) یا (وَلو بَلَغَ ما بَلَغَ) را در پیش گرفته که به نظر من, قابل تحسین است. آن چه پیش روى شماست, اندکى بیش از مرور یک کتاب است, و در واقع, نکاتى است که من در طى چند سال با آن ها کلنجار رفته ام. این نوشته را به عنوان هدیه اى به نیگل تقدیم مى کنم, هرچند ممکن است برخى آن را ستایشى تقریباً دوپهلو و نیش دار و از این رو, ناپسند بدانند, با این حال, نکات مطرح شده در آن برخاسته از احترام خالصانه اى است که آمیخته با اختلاف نظر ژرف من با نیگل شده است. 4هم چنین مى توان این نقد را مجموعه اى از رهنمودهایى دانست که درباره چگونگى ردّ انواع نسبى گرایى و ذهن گرایى, که در قالب تلاش هایى براى متزلزل ساختن یقینى بودن باورهاى دینى به کار گرفته شده, مطرح شده اند. در استدلال هایى که در ردّ دیدگاه نیگل مطرح کرده ام, تلاش کرده ام تا در ارائه پاسخ به مسائلى که وى مطرح کرده, از فلسفه و عرفان اسلامى بهره ببرم, البته مقصودم این نیست که بدون چون و چرا همه دیدگاه هاى اندیشمندان اسلامى را بپذیریم, بلکه تنها امیدوار بوده ام که دیدگاه هایى را مطرح کنم که به نوعى با روحیه خدامحورى و دین مدارى حاکم بر ایشان هماهنگ باشد.
https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_20880_fc49c234a4615761e32d5ffb5edf2ada.pdf
2004-03-20
522
583
محمد
لگنهاوسن ترجمه منصور
1
عضو هیئت علمی جامعه المصطفی
AUTHOR
1. Thomas Nagle, The Last Word, New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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2 . مغالطه ضد شخص یا ضد انسان (ad hominem) مغالطه اى است که در آن به جاى ردّ مستدل دیدگاه طرف مقابل, شخصیت وى نقد شود; مثلاً به جاى نقد دیدگاه یک فیلسوف گفته شود که وى دچار فساد اخلاقى یا معتاد به مشروبات الکلى است!
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3 . در این جا توضیحى اجمالى درباره ذهن گرایى (subjectivism) ضرورى است:
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ذهن گرایى مقوله عامى است که شامل همه آموزه هایى مى شود که بر ویژگى هاى شخصى یا درونى تأکید مى کند:
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1 . در معرفت شناسى, آموزه اى است که معرفت را به آگاهى هاى ذهن از حالات خود محدود مى کند. آموزه ادراک بازنمایان یا بازنماینده (representativeperception) غالباً در این مقوله مى گنجد. براساس این آموزه, علم فرد به حقیقت فقط و فقط به واسطه مفاهیم ذهنى است, علم حضورى و بى واسطه مفاهیم وجود ندارد و همواره مفاهیم در علم ما دخالت دارند.
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2 . در متافیزیک, آموزه خود تنهاگروى (solipsism) و ایدئالیسم ذهن گرایانه.
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3 . در زیبایى شناسى, آموزه اى که مى گوید حکم یا قضاوت زیبایى شناختى, چیزى جز سلیقه فردى نیست.
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4 . ذهن گرایى اخلاقى, آموزه اى است که وسترمارک (Westermarck) پایه ریزى کرد, با این مضمون که آن چه احکام اخلاقى بیان مى کنند چیزى نیست جز این امر که فردى که حکم اخلاقى صادر مى کند در مورد آن موضوع نگرشى پسندانه یا تأییدى یا غیر پسندانه و غیر تأییدى دارد. براساس این دیدگاه, هیچ گاه میان دو نفر اشتراک معنا و مقصود در مورد حکم و قضاوت واحد وجود ندارد, چرا که منظور هر یک از آن ها از حکم خود, این است که من این را پسند یا ناپسند مى دانم. علاوه بر آن, دو شخص در اختلاف نظر آشکار درباره یک حکم اخلاقى هیچ گاه در تعارض با یکدیگر نیستند. هنگامى که دو گزاره متناقضِ (x نادرست است) و (x درست است) به درستى شرح داده شوند, به این معنا هستند که (A, x را پسندیده مى داند) و (B, x را پسندیده نمى داند) و در این صورت, این دو گزاره متناقض نیستند, بلکه تنها بیان گر اختلاف نظر A و B هستند. به همین ترتیب, هیچ نوع استدلال یا قرینه اى, ارتباطى با تأیید یا زیر سؤال بردن این گونه احکام ندارد.
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(Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion, Eastern and Western Thought, W.L. Reese. Humanities Press, 1980, p.555.)
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4 . در این نوشته اعداد انگلیسیِ داخل پرانتز, مربوط به صفحات مورد استناد کتاب حرف آخر هستند.
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5 . کواین در آثار گوناگون خود به تمثیلى از (اوتو نویرات)با عنوان کشتى نویرات اشاره مى کند. نویرات در این مثال مى گوید: ناخداى کشتى نمى تواند در دریا کشتى خود را به یک باره عوض کند یا تغییر دهد, زیرا در این صورت, غرق خواهد شد, اما مى تواند به تدریج, قسمت هاى مختلف کشتى را یکى پس از دیگرى تعمیر یا تعویض کند; مثلاً نخست سمت چپ عرشه را تعمیر کند و سپس با قرار گرفتن در سمت چپ, سمت راست و آن گاه سایر قسمت هاى کشتى را تعمیر یا تعویض کند. در مورد اندیشه ها نیز همین نکته صادق است. ما نخست قسمتى از شبکه اندیشه هاى خود را اصلاح مى کنیم و آن گاه با توجه به آن سایر قسمت ها را نیز اصلاح مى کنیم و با این کار در نهایت, کل شبکه اندیشه ها را اصلاح یا جایگزین مى کنیم. بنابراین, در ابتدا نمى توان به یک باره از کل شبکه اندیشه ها گریزى داشت, اما اندک اندک مى توان همه آن ها را اصلاح کرد و تغییر داد. نویرات این تمثیل را در مقاله اى با مشخصات زیر بیان کرده است:
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Otto Neurath,Protokollstze, Erkenntnis 3 (1932), 206.
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6 . ایتالیک از نویسنده مقاله است.
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7 . براى مثال ر.ک:
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Graham Priest, An Introduction to Non-Classical Logic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
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8 . براى اطلاع از دیدگاهى تجربه گرایانه درباره علم که صراحتاً از تلاش براى پایه ریزى دیدگاهى جامع درباره جهان دورى مى کند, ر.ک:
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Bas Van Fraassen, The Empirical Stance (New Haven: Yale, 2002).
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9 . رابرت نوزیک نیز در کتاب زیر این نکته را در ردّ نیگل بیان داشته است:
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Rober Nozick, Invariances (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 2-3.
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10 . براى نمونه ر.ک:
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Morris Kline, Mathematics and the Search for Certainty (New York: Oxford, 1985).
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11 . مانند مثال زیر:
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این, کتاب است. (صغرا)
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اگر این, کتاب است, خوب است. (کبرا)
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پس این, خوب است. (نتیجه)
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12 . براى بررسى بیش تر استدلال هایى که در تأیید و ردّ قاعده وضع مقدم آمده, ر.ک:
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W. G. Lycan, Real Conditionals (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
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13. Saul A. Kripke, Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language, An Elementary Exposition, Cambridge, Massachusett: Harvard University Press, 1982.
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14. Hartry Field, Science Without Numbers (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980).
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15. Elizabeth S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross, trs., The Philosophical Works of Descartes, Vol.1, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 147.
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ترجمه فارسى رساله (از دکتر احمد احمدى) با متن انگلیسى آن, که در این مقاله ترجیح داده ایم, تفاوت هاى اندکى دارد. (م)
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16 . پیرس (C.S. Peirce) به فلسفه دکارتى به عنوان فلسفه اى غیر علمى حمله مى کند, زیرا این مکتب فلسفى ادعا مى کند که همه چیز را در معرض شک قرار مى دهد. از نظر پیرس, شک واقعى نوعى ناآرامى روحى است که خود را همراه با تحقیق و پرسش گرى مى کند. پاسخ وى به شک گرایى این است: (شک هاى غیر واقعى و خیالى را کنار بگذارید). دو مقاله پیرس را در مجله The Monist (1905-06) که بعدها در منبع هاى زیر تجدید چاپ شد, بنگرید:
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Collected Papers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1931-35) 4. 530ff., 5.411ff., 5.438ff.,; Edward C. Moore, ed., Charles S. Peirce: The Essential Writings (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), 268, 291.
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17 . براى آشنایى و توضیح بیش تر بحث, ر.ک:
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ضیاء موحد, منطق موجّهات, تهران: هرمس, چ1, 1381 .
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18. See Greg Restall زCarnapصs Tolerance, Meaning and Logical Pluralismس, Journal of Philosophy Xcix, No.8, Aug.2002,
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19 . ر.ک:
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Shaughan Lavine, Understanding the Infinite, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994).
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20 . گزاره هاى درجه اول (first-order statements) گزاره هایى هستند که درباره خود اشیاى خارجى و بیان گر روابط اشیاى خارجى است. مثل گزاره (جاذبه زمین وجود دارد) یا (آهن از چوب سنگین تر است); برخلاف گزاره هاى درجه دوم که درباره گزاره هاى درجه اوّل و ناظر به آن هاست; مثلاً مى گوییم: گزاره (آهن از چوب سنگین تر است) موجّه است.
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21 . بازول (Boswell) در زندگى نامه دکتر جانسون مى نویسد که جانسون در ردّ ایدئالیسم مورد ادعاى بارکلى, سنگ بزرگى را محکم با لگد کوبید و گفت: (من ایدئالیسم بارکلى را این گونه رد مى کنم).
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James Boswell, Life of Johnson
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http: //www. gutenberg. net/ etext98/ ljnsn10.txt
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22 . اصطلاح grueish مرکب است از دو واژه (green) (سبز) و (blue) (آبى) و یک پسوند که نلسن گودمن آن را براى توضیح این احتمال شک گرایانه ابداع کرده است که مثلاً از کجا مى فهمیم که رنگ یک شىء آبى است یا سبز و نه هم آبى و هم سبز (سابى). (ر.ک: نلسن گودمن, واقعیت, افسانه و پیش بینى, ترجمه رضا گندمى نصرآبادى, انتشارات مفید, قم, بهار1381)
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23 . براى نمونه ر.ک:
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Ralph Barton, Perry, Philosophy of the Recent Past (New York: Charles Scribnersص Sons, 1926).
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24. J. L. Mackie, Ethics, Inventing Right and Wrong (Harmonsworth: Penguin, 1977), ch.1.
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25. Nancy Cartwright, How the Laws of Physics Lie (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 59ff.
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26 . ر.ک: على اکبر احمدى, نظریه صدق تارسکى, دانشگاه تبریز, مؤسسه تحقیقاتى علوم اسلامى ـ انسانى, تبریز 1382 . (این کتاب در اصل رساله دکتراى مؤلف به راهنمایى دکتر محمد لگنهاوسن است).(م)
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27 . این نکته را آقاى حمید وحید در مکاتبه اى در تاریخ 9اکتبر سال 2002, مطرح کردند.
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28. Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature ش(Princeton: Princton University Press, 1979).
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29. Ian Hacking, The Social Construction of What? (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999).
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30. See A. Kebin Reinhart, Before Revelation: The Boundaries of Muslim Moral Thought (Albany: SUNNY, 1995).
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31. Harman Gilbert شExplaining Value and Other Essaysص in Moral Philosophy, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
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استدلال هارمن در ردّ مطلق گرایى پیش تر با مشخصات زیر چاپ شده است:
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زIs There a Single True Morality?س in David Copp and David Zimmerman (eds.), Morality, Reason and Truth (Totowa: Roman & Littlefield, 1985), 27-48.
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32. Bernard Williams, Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy: (Cambridge: Harvard, 1985).
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33. Williams, 158-159.
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34. Alvin plantinga, Warrant and Proper Function ش(New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), ch.12.
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35 . قرنتیان, اوّل, 13:12 .
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36 . goodness; در این جا منظور از خوب بودن خدا, معنایى قریب و همسان با عدالت خداست.
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37 . این بیان, تبدیل استدلالِ تکاملیِ صرفِ نوزیک (که در ادامه مقاله به بحث از آن خواهیم پرداخت) به بحث و استدلال دینى است. نکته مورد نظر من آن است که هیچ تفاوتى ندارد که شهودهاى ما حاصل انتخاب طبیعى, مشیت الهى یا ساختار اساسى جهان مأنوس با ذهن ما باشد: ممکن است که شهودهاى عقلى ما تصویرى نسبتاً وارونه از واقعیت ارائه کنند, اما تصویرى که نقشه بسیار سودمندى از آن دسته از ابعاد واقعیت در اختیار ما مى نهند که ما باید براساس آن راه خود را پیدا کنیم و نه تصویر درستى که ممکن است وراى قواى شناختى ما وجود داشته باشد.
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38. Chittick William C., The Sufi Path of Love (Albany, SUNNY, 1983), 19.
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(ترجمه فارسى آن (با اندکى تصرف): راه عرفانى عشق: تعالیم معنوى مولوى, ترجمه شهاب الدین عباسى; تهران: پیکان, چاپ اوّل, 1382 ).
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39 . ر.ک: مثنوى, 1, 2135ـ2140 .
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40 . مثنوى, 5, 3932ـ3933 .
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41 . دیوان شمس, 1523 .
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42. Wainwright, William J. شReason and the Heart: A Prolegomenon to a Critique of Passional Reasonص (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995).
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43. Newman, John Henry, زThe Nature of Faith in Relation to Reasonس, in Fifteen Sermons Preached before the University of Oxford (Oxford, 1843; repint, Westminster, Kd.: Christion Classics, 1966), 213-214, cited in Wainwright, 79.
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44. Prince Peter Alekseyevich Kropotkin, Ethics: Origin and Development, trs. Louis S. Friedland and Joseph R. Piroshnikoff (New York: Tudor Publishing Co., 1945), 221.
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45. Kroprtkin, 294.
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46 . وین رایت (در صفحه102 کتاب خود) این نوع استدلال را به ویلیام جیمز نسبت داده و به نقد آن پرداخته است.
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47. Nozick, Robert, The Nature of Rationality (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
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مسئله تکامل و عقلانیت هم چنین با تفصیل بیش تر در کتاب زیر که آخرین کتاب نوزیک است, بحث شده است:
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Robert Nozick, Invariances: The Structure of the Objective World (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001).
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48. Nozick, Robert, Philosophical Explanations (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981).
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49. Nozick (1993), 109.
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50. Nozick (1993), 123.
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51. Nozik (1993), 126.
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52. Rescher, Nicholas, A System of Pragmatic Idealism, Vol.II: The Validity of Values (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
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53. Rescher (1993), 99.
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54 . فیه مافیه, مولانا جلال الدین رومى, با تصحیح بدیع الزمان فروزانفر; تهران: امیرکبیر, چاپ پنجم, 1362, ص5 .
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